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关头词：英语论文的引述学者的阐述引述格局申明引文作者申明卷号
择要：精确援用作品原文或专家、学者的阐述是写好英语论文的首要关头;既要注重引述与论文的无机统一,即其逻辑性,又要注重引述格局 (即英语论文参考文献)的规范性)。
引述别人的概念,能够或许或许间接援用,也能够或许或许间接援用。不管接纳何种体例,论文作者必须申明所引笔墨的作者和来由。今朝美国学术界通行的做法是在引文后以圆括弧情势申明引文作者及来由。现针对文中引述的差别环境,将局部规范格局分述以下。
1.若引文缺乏三行,则可将引文无机地融会在论文中。如:
The divorce of Arnold's personal desire from his inheritance results in “the familiar picture of Victorian man alone in an alien universe”(Roper9).
这里,圆括弧中的Roper为引文作者的姓(不用注出全名);阿拉伯数字为引文来由的页码(不要写成p.9);作者姓与页码之间需空一格,但不需任何标点标记;句号应置于第二个圆括弧后。
2.被引述的笔墨若是跨越三行,则应将引文与论文笔墨分隔,以下例所示:
Whitman has proved himself an eminent democratic representative and precursor, and his “Democratic Vistas”
is an admirable and characteristic
diatribe. And if one is sorry that in it
Whitman is unable to conceive the
extreme crises of society, one is certain
that no society would be tolerable whoses
citizens could not find refreshment in its
buoyant democratic idealism.(Chase 165)
这里的格局有两点要加以注重。一是引文各行距英语论文的左侧第一个字母十个空格,即应从第十一格打起;二是引文不需加引号,开端的句号应标在最初一个词后。
3.如需在引文中插注,对某些词语加以诠释,则要操纵方括号(不可用圆括弧)。如:
Dr.Beaman points out that“he [Charles Darw in] has been an important factor in the debate between evolutionary theory and biblical creationism”(9).
值得注重的是,本例中引文作者的姓已呈现在指点句中,故圆括弧中只要申明引文来由的页码便可。
4.若是拟援用的笔墨中有与论文有关的词语须要删除,则需用省略号。若是省略号呈现在引文中则用三个点,如呈现在引文末,则用四个点,最初一点表现句号,置于第二个圆括弧后(普通说来,应防止在引文开首操纵省略号);点与字母之间,或点与点之间都需空一格。如:
Mary Shelley hated tyranny and“looked upon the poor as pathetic victims of the social system and upon the rich and highborn...with undisguised scorn and contempt...(Nitchie 43).
5.若引文出自一部多卷书,除申明作者姓和页码外,还需申明卷号。如:
Professor Chen Jia's A History of English Literature aimed to give Chinese readers“a historical survey of English literature from its earliest beginnings down to the 20thcentury”(Chen,1:i).
圆括弧里的1为卷号,小写罗马数字i为页码,申明引文出自第1卷叙言(弁言、叙言、导言等多操纵小写的罗马数字表明页码)。别的,书名 A History of English Literature 下划了线;规范的格局是:书名,包含以成书情势出书的作品名(如《失乐土》)均需划线,或用斜体字;其余作品,如诗歌、散文、短篇小说等的标题则以双引号标出,如“To Autumn”及后面呈现的“Democratic Vistas”等。
6.若是英语论文中援用了统一作者的两篇或两篇以上的作品,除申明引文作者及页码外,还要申明作品名。如:
Bacon condemned Platoas“an obstacle to science”(Farrington, Philosophy 35).
Farrington points out that Aristotle's father Nicomachus, a physician, probably trained his son in medicine(Aristotle 15).
这两个例子别离援用了Farrington的两部著述,故在各自的圆括弧中别离注出所援用的书名,以避免混合。两部作品名均为缩写情势(如书名太长,在圆括弧中加以申明时均需操纵缩写情势),其全名别离为 Founder of Scientific Philosophy 及 The Philosophy of Francis Baconand Aristotle。
7.评析诗歌常需援用原诗句,其援用格局以下例所示。
现现在，大师都晓得论文撰写论文内容的教程都比拟死板，针对性不强，普通不能知足学院英语论文课程的请求，须要教员按照先生的专业特色，按照写作讲授纪律，自行编写讲义。上面是学术参考网小编为伴侣们汇集清算的英语论文称谢信，接待浏览！
Acknowledgements
MydeepestgratitudegoesfirstandforemosttoProfessoraaa，mysupervisor，forherconstantencouragementandguidance.Shehaswalkedmethroughallthestagesofthewritingofthisthesis.Withoutherconsistentandilluminatinginstruction，thisthesiscouldnothavereacheditspresentform.
Second，IwouldliketoexpressmyheartfeltgratitudetoProfessoraaa，wholedmeintotheworldoftranslation.IamalsogreatlyindebtedtotheprofessorsandteachersattheDepartmentofEnglish：Professordddd，Professorssss，whohaveinstructedandhelpedmealotinthepasttwoyears.
Lastmythankswouldgotomybelovedfamilyfortheirlovingconsiderationsandgreatconfidenceinmeallthroughtheseyears.Ialsoowemysinceregratitudetomyfriendsandmyfellowclassmateswhogavemetheirhelpandtimeinlisteningtomeandhelpingmeworkoutmyproblemsduringthedifficultcour搜索引擎优化fthethesis
Fan Zhang
University of Limerick
MEng. Computer and Communication Systems
ID: 0526401
Abstract: I am a video game fan, but not an addict. Since this topic attracted me a lot, I decided to choose this one as my topic for the third assignment of Processor Architecture Module. I started to play video games since I was five. While I was playing games, I found the game console itself just like a mystery, how could they react our actions to the controller then reflects so amazing pictures on TV? Although I have read a lot about it in game magazines, I admit that I didn’t try to find the answer until I found this topic. This is a great chance for me to answer the question myself. At the same time, I want to present you this paper, which should be fun.
This paper concerns the differences of architecture between PC and PlayStation 2. Since the purposes of PC and PlayStation 2 are different (or maybe I should say the purposes of PC include that of PlayStation 2), the different objectives decide the different design orientation. I think PlayStation 2 is a good game console for the comparison. First, a lot of documentations about PlayStation 2’s Emotion Engine can be found in the Internet. Second, as far as I know, PlayStation 2’s design has straightforward purposes: 3D games and multimedia, which makes the game console is seemed to be born for these two reasons. Contrasts to PlayStation, current PCs do very well on these two aspects, but the cost is the unstoppable upgrade of hardware. PlayStation 2 is a product born 5 years ago. Today tens of millions of people are still enjoy PlayStation games at home. 5-year-old PCs have been washed out already.
Keywords: PC, processor, video card, system controller, bus, Emotion Engine, Vector Unit, Graphics Synthesize.
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 The evolution of game performance
The computer technology has achieved rapid evolution this year. From Figure 1.1 to Figure 1.5 you can see, in almost twenty years, how great changes of game performance are, both PC and game consoles.
Figure 1.1: Final Fantasy I (FC) 1987 by SQUARE
Figure 1.2: Final Fantasy XII (PlayStation 2) 2006 by SQUARE ENIX
Figure 1.3: Prince of Persia (PC) 1989 by Broderbund
Figure 1.4 Prince of Persia: The Two Thrones (PC) 2006 by Ubisoft
The screenshots above are the evidences of technique developments. In these twenty years, computers are almost 10 times faster than in the 1980’s. The cost of buying a computer is decreasing simultaneously. However, the development orientations of both PC and game consoles didn’t change much during these 20 years. Here I want to say game consoles and PC are different, although they both can be classified to ‘computer’ class, although PC includes all game consoles’ functions (but the software are not compatible each other). The differences include many areas, the architecture, the media, the software producing and selling model, and the customers.
1.2 Why they are different?
I would rather to say it is because of the distinct purposes. Of course PC can play games, can do anything that game consoles do, and in the present, PlayStation 2, the most famous game console in the world, can connect to Internet, can print paper, even can run complete Linux operating system, but PC is general purpose, this means PC should care too much things, and be good at almost everything. For instance, PC should be good at text processing, games, printing, Internet connection, a huge amount of protocols are settled for it; PC also need to compatible with all components and software that are designed and implemented by current standards. But game consoles are different. They need only care about games, which mean most designs are flexible. At the same time, the standards which PC has to obey do not affect it at all. No extra cost, no burden, only focus on games.
Figure 1.5: Sony’s PlayStation 2
1.3 Multimedia
From later 20th century, multimedia has become one of the main purposes of PC. Corresponding new technology for enhancing the capability of multimedia processing on PC has been developed as well. However, the reality of transmission speed bottleneck hasn’t been changed much. Keith Diefendorff and Pradeep K. Dubey published an article named “How Multimedia workloads will change Processor Design” in 1996. They argued the dynamic media processing would be a big challenge for current processor architecture. They also thought it will force the fundamental changes in processor design.
Before Pentium 4, the processors shared the same character: their data cache memory was big, but instruction cache memory was relatively small. It was quite useful for most usage, for instance, word editor, e-business, stock information processing, and so on. However, Diefendorff did not think it is useful, or efficient enough for multimedia processing, for multimedia data come and forth constantly, no need to settle a huge bulk of storage space for holding the information that rarely has chance of reuse. Contrarily, multimedia processing requires more calculation than others. So, for multimedia calculation, the instruction cache memory should become larger, both caches require faster transmission speed as well. We shall see this prediction has realized much in both Pentium 4 and PlayStation 2.
1.4 The purpose and the brief layout of the article
This paper is mainly talk about the architectural differences between PC and PlayStation 2, which is the most famous game console in the world. The article will discuss several aspects, the whole architecture, the CPU, the motherboard, and the graphics. In the following section, the whole architectures are compared. Two processors, Intel’s Pentium 4 and PlayStation 2’s Emotion Engine are discussed and compared in the third section. The fourth section is about the bus and caching comparison. The fifth section mainly talks about PC and PlayStation 2’s graphic devices, Video card and Graphics Synthesizer. The conclusion will be made in the last section.
2. WHOLE ARCHITECTURE COMPARISON
2.1 PC architecture
The basis of PC could root back to 1940’s. John von Neumann (1903-57), who constructed a very basis structure of computer, stayed his name in the history forever. The architecture of modern PC is still based mainly on his architecture. Let’s see a diagram of PC architecture as our basis of illustrating how PC works for game performance in the future.
Figure 2.1: PC architecture--------------------------------->
Different regions in the diagram have different clock speed. We can see the system controller is the heart of whole PC system. It carries data between processor and other components in PC over bridge. The bridge is used to connect interfaces and buses. Two kinds of bridges exist in PC, North Bridge (the system controller) and south bridge (the bus bridge). The system controller provides an interface between the processor and external devices, both memory and I/O. The system controller works with the processor to perform bus cycles.
From the diagram we can see, the system controller makes the whole diagram to be complicated. This is because the system controller has to adjust the bus cycles between the processor and the external device that it wants to access. Briefly, the PC’s working procedure can be described as follow:
PC executes commandsèaccess data with the help of system controllerèreturns the execution resultèexecute commandsè…
System controller also possesses the function of controlling DMA (Direct Memory Access), which is the ability to transfer data between memory and I/O without processor intervention.
2.2 PlayStation 2 Overview
Let’s first see the architecture of PlayStation 2.
Figure 2.2: the architecture of PlayStation 2---------------->
PlayStation 2 is composed of a graphics synthesizer, the Emotion Engine, the I/O Processor (IOP), and a Sound Processor Unit (SPU). The IOP controls peripheral devices such as controller and disk drive and detect controller input, which is sent to the Emotional Engine. According to this signal, the Emotional Engine updates the internal virtual world of the game program within the video frame rate. Many physical equations need to be solved to determine the behavior of the character in the game world. After this is determined, the calculated object position is transformed according to the viewpoint, and a drawing command sequence (display list) is generated. When the graphics synthesizer receives the display list, it draws the primitive shape based on connected triangles on the frame buffer. The contents of the frame buffer are then converted from digital to analogue, and the video image appears on the TV. Finally, the Sound Processor is in charge of sound card thing, it outputs 3D digital sound using AC-3 and DTS. This is the overview of PlayStation 2 working procedure.
2.3 Comparison
Compare Figure 2.1 and Figure 2.2, we can see that the PC’s architecture is far more complex than that of PlayStation 2’s. There are many reasons. PC has more devices has to care. For instance, PlayStation’s I/O processor, which is act as the same role as the system controller bus in PC, the chief responsibility of this chip is to manage the different devices attached to the PS2. 2 PlayStation controller port, and MagicGate-compatible memory card interface, 2 USB ports, and a full-speed 400Mbps IEEE 1394 port, which are much less than PC. The other main reason is processor’s speed increased much faster than other devices; the devices themselves had uneven speed increments as well. In general, PlayStation 2 has simpler architecture and less components and devices.
3. ALL ABOUT PROCESSORS
3.1 Pentium 4 Processor
Pentium 4 adopts Intel’s 7th generation architecture. We can see in detail from the diagram below. Since the birthday of PlayStation 2 waiting for exploring was 4th March 2000, when Pentium 4 was not published yet. It is unfair to PlayStation 2. However, Pentium 4 is the most popular processor in the present, and PlayStation 2 is globally the most popular game console, whatever.
Figure 3.1: Pentium 4 processor architecture
Since the previous generation architecture (Pentium III) Intel began to use hybrid CISC/RISC architecture. The processor has to accept CISC instructions, because it has to be compatible with all current software (most software is written using CISC instructions). However, Pentium 4 processes RISC-like instructions, but its front-end accepts only CISC x86 instructions. A decoder is in charge of the translation. Intel doesn’t create the path for programs using pure RISC instructions.
CISC instructions are rather complex, decoding one may cost several clock cycles. In Pentium III era, once a CISC instruction needed to be processed several times (i.e. a small loop), the decoder had to decode the instruction again and again. In Pentium 4 this situation has been improved by replacing Pentium III’s L1 instruction cache to Trace Cache, which is placed behind the decoder. The trace cache ensures that the processor pipeline is continuously fed with instructions, decoupling the execution path from a possible stall-threat of the decoder units. After decoding stage, Intel introduces the Renamer/Allocator unit to change the name and contents of 32-bit CISC instructions of the registers used by the program into one of the 128 internal registers available, allowing the instruction to run at the same time of another instruction that uses the exact same standard register, or even out-of-order, i.e. this allows the second instruction to run before the first instruction even if they mess with the same register.
The other big advance of Pentium 4 is its SSE2 - The New Double Precision Streaming SIMD Extensions. 128-bit SIMD package offers 144 strong instructions. Intel prepares two SIMD instruction units for Pentium 4 (64-bit each), one for instructions, and the other for data. Let’s recall Section 1.3, Pentium 4’s 128-bit SIMD extension is Intel’s efforts for meeting the future requirements for multimedia implementations. Because of that, video, games implementation capability gained the drastic enforcement.
Pentium 4’s pipeline is the most disputable place. When it was announced, 20-stage pipeline surprised a lot of people. Intel did so because the more stage pipeline can increase the clock rate of processor. However, once the pipeline does not contain the information what processor need, the pipeline refill-time is going to be a long wait. In fact, Pentium 4 is only faster than Pentium III because it works at a higher clock rate. Under the same clock rate, a Pentium III CPU would be faster than a Pentium 4.
Figure 3.2: Pentium 4 Pipeline
The scheduler is a heart of out-of-order engine in Pentium 4. It organizes and dispatches all microinstructions (in other words, uops) into specialized order for execution engines.
Figure 3.3: Pentium 4 scheduler
Four kinds of schedulers deal with different kinds of microinstructions for keeping the processor busy all the time. The ports are Pentium 4’s dispatch ports. If you read the diagram carefully, you can see Port 1 and Port 0 each is assigned a floating-point microinstruction, Port 0 is assigned Simple FP Scheduler (contains simple Floating-point microinstructions) and Port 1 is assigned Slow / Floating Point Scheduler (contains complex floating-point microinstructions). Port 0 and Port 1 also accept the microinstructions came from Fast Scheduler. For the floating point microinstruction may run several clock cycles, Pentium 4’s scheduler monitor decides to transfer the microinstruction to Port 1 if Port 0 is busy, and vice versa. Port 2 is in charge of Load microinstructions and Port 3 deals with Store microinstructions.
3.2 PlayStation 2’s Emotion Engine
PlayStation 2’s designers focus deeply on the purpose of 3D games. At the same time, they had to ensure it was completely compatible with DVD video. For performing 3D games well, PlayStation 2 has to possess perfect vision and audio functions. Emotion Engine acts as the role of Geometry calculator (transforms, translations, etc), Behavior/World simulator (enemy AI, calculating the friction between two objects, calculating the height of a wave on a pond, etc). It also in charge of a secondary job of Misc. functions (program control, housekeeping, etc). In general, Emotion Engine is the combination of CPU and DSP processor.
Figure 3.4: The architecture of Emotion Engine
The basic architecture of Emotion Engine is show in Figure 14. The units are composed of
(1) MIPS III CPU core
(2) Vector Unit (two vector units, VU0 and VU1)
(3) Floating-Point Coprocessor (FPU)
(4) Image Processing Unit (IPU)
(5) 10-channel DMA controller
(6) Graphics Interface Unit (GIF)
(7) RDRAM interface and I/O interface.
Something interesting in the diagram you may have noticed. First, inside the Emotion Engine, there is a main bus connects all components for data communication. However, between MIP III core and FPU, VU0 and MIP III, VU1 and GIF, there are dedicate 128-bit buses connect them. Second, VU0 and VU1 have certain relationship shown in the diagram. This design extremely enhanced the flexibility of programming with Emotion Engine.
MIPS III Core connects with the FPU and VU0 directly with the dedicated buses. The pipeline of MIPS III is 6-stage. The MIPS III is the primary and controlling part, VU0 and the FPU are coprocessors to MIPS III. They compute the behavior and emotion of synthesis, physical calculations, etc For example, in a football game, the flying orbits of the ball, the wind effect, the friction between ball and the ground need to be calculated. At the same time, 21 player’s AI needs to be implemented (the last player is controlled by the user), the activity, the lineup, etc. After the calculation, MIPS III core sends out the display list to GIF.
VU1 has a dedicated 128-bit bus connected to GIF, which is the interface between GS (Graphics Synthesizer) and EE (Emotion Engine). VU1 can independently generate display list and send to GIF via its dedicated bus. Both of these relationships forms a kind of dedicate and flexible structure. The final goal of EE is generating display list and send to GS. The programmer can choose either programming two groups (MIPSIII + FPU + VU0 and VU1 + GIF) separately, send their display list in parallel, or programming purposely, making MIPS III + FPU + VU0 group as the “coprocessor” of VU1, for instance, generate physical and AI information then send to VU1, VU1 then produces corresponding display list. The diagram below shows the two programming methods.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.5: Two programming methods of Emotion Engine
MIPS ISA is an industry standard RISC ISA that found in applications almost everywhere. Sony’s MIPS III implementation is a 2-issue design that supports multimedia instruction set enhancements. It has
(1) 32, 128-bit general purpose registers
(2) 2, 64-bit integer ALUs
(3) 1 Branch Execution Unit
(4) 1 FPU coprocessor (COP1)
(5) 1 vector coprocessor (COP2)
What I really want to cover are two vector processors, VU0 and VU1. This is the main reason why PlayStation 2 is powerful.
VU0 is a 128-bit SIMD/VLIW design. The main job of VU0 is acting as the coprocessor of MIPS III. It is a powerful Floating-point co-processor; deal with the complex computation of emotion synthesis and physical calculation.
The instruction set of VU0 is just 32-bit MIPS COP instructions. But it is mixed with integer, FPU, and branch instructions. VIF is in charge of unpacking the floating-point data in the main bus to 4 * 32 words (w, x, y, z) for processing by FMAC. VU0 also possesses 32 128-bit floating-point registers and 16 16-bit integers.
VU0 is pretty strong. It is equipped with 4 FMACs, 1 FDIV, 1 LSU, 1 ALU and 1 random number generator. FMAC can do the Floating-Point Multiply Accumulate calculation and Minimum / Maximum in 1 cycle; FDIV can do the Floating-Point Divide in 7 cycles, Square Root in 7 cycles, and Inverse Square Root in 13 cycles. In fact, as the coprocessor of MIPS III, VU0 only uses its four FMACs. However, VU0 doesn’t have to stay in coprocessor mode all the time. It can operate in VLIW mode (as a MIPS III coprocessor, VU0 only takes 32-bit instructions. In VILW mode, the instruction can be extended to 64-bit long). By calling a micro-subroutine of VLIW code. In this case, it splits the 64-bit instruction it takes into two 32-bit MIPS COP2 instructions, and executes them in parallel, just like VU1.
VU1 has very similar architecture than VU0. The diagram below is the architecture of VU1 possesses all function that VU0 has, plus some enhancement. First, VU1 is a fully independent SIMD/VLIW processor and deal with geometry processing. Second, VU1 has stronger capability than VU0: it has a 16K bytes’ instruction memory and a 16K bytes’ data memory, which VU0 only has 4K bytes each. VU1 acts as the role of geometry processor; it burdens more instructions and data to be computed. Third, VU1 has three different paths to lead its way to GIF. It can transmit the display list from 128-bit main bus, just as VU0 + CPU + FPU do; or it can transmit via the direct 128-bit bus between its VIF and GIF; the last one is quite interesting, the path comes out from the lower execution unit (which I will talk about later) and goes directly to GIF. Three individual paths ensure two main problems of PC 3D game programming will not happen: first, the bottleneck of bus bandwidth; second, the simplex way of programming.
Figure 3.6: The architecture of VU1
VU1’s VIF does much more than that of VU0 does. The VIF takes and parses in which Sony called 3D display list. The 3D display list constructs of two types of data: the VU1 programming instructions (which goes to Instruction memory) and the data that the instruction deal with (which goes to Data memory). The instruction itself can be divided into two units, Upper instruction and Lower Instruction, which directly operate on two different execution units, Upper execution unit and Lower execution unit. The 64-bit VLIW instruction can be used to deal with two operations in parallel. Recall that VU0 possesses the same function but most of time it acts only as the coprocessor of MIPS III, this mode can only operate 32-bit SIMD instructions. Programmers also rarely ask VU0 to do the same thing what VU1 is good at.
3.3 Comparison
I strongly agree if you think Emotion Engine is more flexible than Pentium 4. The design of Emotion Engine is completely around the performance of 3D games. Two vector units, VU0 and VU1, contribute a lot for the game performance. Pentium 4 architecture is straight, you can trace the path of data from the very beginning, and soon you will be able to know how Pentium 4 works easily. For Emotion Engine, except you are the game designer, you will never know exactly.
I did not put too much digits in this section, the comparison of digits does not make sense at all. The comparison between two PC processors depends on digits, because they are the same kind and work in the same situation. For game consoles, without the burden of compatibility, the designers think a lot for the perfect cooperation. This would results in better performance, plus less cost. Unfortunately the programmers don’t think it is a good idea, it cost them quite a lot of time to investigate the processor to figure how it works.
4. BUSES AND CACHEING
4.1 PC Motherboard
While multimedia processing requires massive quantities of data to move rapidly throughout the system, the speed difference between processor and external devices is the main bottleneck of PC. Processor companies like Intel have put a lot of energy into getting the rest of the system components to run faster, even if other vendors provide these components. Improving the performance of motherboard is a good idea. Figure 4.1 is the main structure diagram of GIGABYTE GA-8TRX330-L Pentium 4 Motherboard. The bandwidth between Processor and system controller, main memory and system controller has reached to equally incredible 6.4GB/S. However, the latency of memory is still impossible to remove. Here I want to talk something about the processor caching mechanism.
In the present, motherboard’s FSB (Front Side Bus) frequency has over 800 megahertz. However, it is slower than that of Pentium 4, which is over 3 gigahertz. Processor runs at a multiple of the motherboard clock speed, and is closely coupled to a local SRAM cache (L1 cache). If processor requires data it will fist look at L1 cache. If it is in L1 cache, the processor read the data at a high speed and no need to do the further search. If it is not, sadly processor has to slow down to the motherboard clock speed (what a drastic brake!) and contact to system controller. System controller will check if L2 cache has the required data. If has, the data is passed to processor. If not, processor has to access the DRAM, which is a relatively slow transfer.
4.2 About PlayStation 2’s buses and caching.
Recall Figure 2.2, we can see 32-bit interfaces between processor and I/O Processor, main memory and I/O Processor, which can achieve 3.2GB/S bus speed. Although slower than Pentium 4, Emotion Engine itself is relatively slow as well, 300MHz MIPS III processor. However, PlayStation 2’s 32-bit interface, 10-channel DMAC, 128-bit internal bus, and small cache memory group to an incredible caching condition. Any data necessary can be store or download in time. This strategy takes 90% of DMA capability. It makes the latency which main memory generates is acceptable for Emotion Engine.
4.3 Comparison
This time we can talk about digits some more. Let’s see a Pentium 4’s cache memory
L1 trace cache: 150K
L1 data memory: 16K
L2 memory: 256K ~ 2MB total: 422~2204K
Let’s see PlayStation 2 next
VU0 data memory: 4K
VU0 instruction memory 4K
VU1 data memory 16K
VU1 instruction memory 16K
MIPS III data memory: 2-way 8K
MIPS III instruction memory: 2-way 16K total: 64K
Contrast to Pentium 4, the cache memory of PlayStation 2 is too small. Its capability is indeed ‘weak’ in the present. Pentium 4 is able to hold more data and does more computations in parallel. However, PC architecture hasn’t been improved along with the processor. No matter how Pentium 4 fast is, present bus architecture is never going to perform Pentium 4 100% capability. PlayStation 2 achieves a nearly perfect structure and mechanism, which helps it exert as much as it can (or maybe I should say because Pentium 4 is too fast, the memory speed is relatively too slow). Besides, it remarkably low down the cost, you can afford a PlayStation 2 plus a controller with the same price of a single Pentium 4 chip.
5. VIDEO PERFORMANCE
5.1 Comparison of performance between PC and PlayStation 2
Figure 5.1 Need for Speed Most Wanted (PlayStation 2) 2006 by EA GAMES
PlayStation 2 Graphics Synthesizer (GS)
· 150 MHz (147.456 MHz)
· 16 Pixel Pipelines
· 2.4 Gigapixels per Second (no texture)
· 1.2 Gigatexels per Second
· Point, Bilinear, Trilinear, Anisotropic Mip-Map Filtering
· Perspective-Correct Texture Mapping
· Bump Mapping
· Environment Mapping
· 32-bit Color (RGBA)
· 32-bit Z Buffer
· 4MB Multiported Embedded DRAM
· 38.4 Gigabytes per Second eDRAM Bandwidth (19.2 GB/s in each direction)
· 9.6 Gigabytes per Second eDRAM Texture Bandwidth
· 150 Million Particles per Second
· Polygon Drawing Rate:
· 75 Million Polygons per Second (small polygon)
· 50 Million Polygons per Second (48-pixel quad with Z and Alpha)
· 30 Million Polygons per Second (50-pixel triangle with Z and Alpha)
· 25 Million Polygons per Second (48-pixel quad with Z, Alpha, and Texture)
· 18.75 Million Sprites per Second (8 x 8 pixel sprites)
Figure 5.2 Needs for Speed Most Wanted (PC) 2006 by EA GAMES
PC Graphics Chip RADEON X300 SE PCI Express
· Bus type PCI Express (x16 lanes)
· Maximum vertical refresh rate 85 Hz
· Display support Integrated 400 MHz RAMDAC
· Display max resolution 2048 x 1536
· Board configuration
· 64 MB frame buffer
· Graphics Chip RADEON X300 SE PCI Express
· Core clock 325 MHz
· Memory clock 200 MHz
· Frame buffer 64 MB DDR
· Memory I/O 64 bit
· Memory Configuration 4 pieces 8Mx16 DDR
· Board configuration
· 128 MB frame buffer
· Specification Description
· Graphics Chip RADEON X300 SE PCI Express
· Core clock 325 MHz
· Memory clock 200 MHz
· Frame buffer 128 MB DDR
· Memory I/O 64 bit
· Memory Configuration 4 pieces 16M x 16 DDR
· Memory type DDR1
· Memory 128 MB
· Operating systems support Windows? 2000, Windows XP, Linux XFree86 and X.Org.
· Core power 16 W (Max board power)
From the data we can see. GS is too weak, contrast to low-level video card of PC. However, the performance of PlayStation is not too that bad. I don’t want to analyze data here. What I am interested to discuss is about the performance itself.
Let’s see Figure 5.2 in detail. Texture is very clear and exquisite. This is what big video memory offers. The tree leaves in distance need a lot of polygons to build. The video card itself is low-level; possess no special effect for the game rendering. No refection and other sparking place can be found. In general, the game performance is only ok.
Figure 5.3 PC game rendering related architecture
Now let’s see PlayStation 2’s performance, which is in Figure 5.1. We see a good image. If you look the image in detail, you may found the mountain beside the road is weird: the shape of mountain is not that nature, like some spectrum graphics. This is done by VU1, which draws the Bezile, build 3D graphic based on the curve. Although not good enough, how many people will actually notice that when dashing at over 200km/h with his virtual car? VU1 does a lot of job like that and it could generate a lot of shapes without too many polygons to build. Now let’s see the car, the refection of cars is true reflection (which means it is not fake texture pretended to be the reflection), we can distinguish the mountains behind, however very blur. The whole image is not as clear as Figure 5.2 because the limitation of GS’s video memory (4M). However, this image is good enough for most PlayStation 2 players.
5.2 Some more about the video performance
Although Pentium 4 has enough capability to process image real time, the way of implementing games is still no change. The video card read the content of texture into its local memory card, the processor only deal with the data and instructions. After the calculation, the processor stores the display list (a list, recorded with the details of all elements, for instance, one single polygon’s position and texture code) back to the main memory. Video card then access the lists and process them, generate picture, transfer to analogue signal and output. Most special effects depend on the video card. So, no good card, no good performance.
Let’s see figure 2.2, we will see there is no direct connection between GS and main memory. At the PC’s point of view, 4MB video-memory is not enough to show a single frame with 1024*768 pixels. How is PlayStation 2 able to perform like that? The answer is bus. So we come back to section 4 again. The specialized display list (which Sony called 3D display list) is directly sent to GS, along with the required texture. GS has a huge bandwidth (3.8GB/S), its local memory can work as fast as it is (maybe it is more suitable if we call the memory as cache). GS itself supports only a few special effects. However, this situation can be improved by the simulation calculations finished by Emotion Engine… Again, PlayStation 2’s elegant design makes its all components work as a whole.
6. CONCLUSION
Hopefully you have got the idea of how PlayStation 2 and PC architecture differ. Let’s go through it again.
General architecture. PCs are more complex to read, but easier to implement. The system bus directly manages all devices inter-communications. PlayStation 2’s is easy to read, but much harder to implement. The communication between each other is convenient.
Processor architecture. The trend of processor architecture design is meeting the requirement of multimedia. Both PC’s Pentium 4 and PlayStation 2’s Emotion Engine are qualified to run multimedia applications efficiently. Pentium 4 is much stronger than Emotion Engine, but the architecture is very ‘straight’ and has to do extra jobs of translating instructions to be compatible with current applications. Emotion Engine has no this burden, the specialized 3D game performance design make it easy to handle complex calculation jobs with relatively low clock rate.
Buses and Caching. PC has classic bottlenecks and there is no way to overcome it. Current PC buses and cache has improved a lot by increasing the bandwidth and cache volumes, but the latency of main memory cannot be solved. PlayStation 2 works on nearly full load; perfect coordination between components is almost achieved.
Video. Although Pentium 4 can run perfectly on multimedia applications, the PC game developers don’t think so. They still stick to push the texture and other data into the video memory for one time. The awkward situation is, when you want to update your PC for high requirement games, the first component came into your mind must be the video card but processor. It is impossible to ask PlayStation 2 players to update. Emotion Engine is in charge of many jobs what PC’s video card does. The good condition of data transmission makes it is possible to implement ‘true’ multimedia processing in games, that is treating game image as media streams, no need to supply huge data storage to hold that.
Purpose: PC’s general—purpose VS PlayStation 2’s 3D game rendering purpose.
PlayStation 2 is 6 years old now. According to the principle of game console life expectance, it is time to hand the baton to its offspring, PlayStation 3. It is a successful game console of Sony. Contrast to PC, it is too weird, but all its weird compositions seemed so reasonable as well. PC’s architecture is classical; all components have its space for upgrade. Maybe it is too early to say the architecture should evolve. However, PlayStation 2’s architecture gave us a good lesson. If you only were interested in games, you should buy a PlayStation series, not a PC. At least, you need not worry about upgrading your components for the next game. Special architecture can make it becomes the best in specialized region.
7. REFERENCE
[1] William Buchanan and Austin Wilson, “Advanced PC Architecture”, ISBN: 0 201 39858 3
[2] John L. Hennessy and David A. Patterson, “Computer Architecture—A Quantitative Approach”, ISBN: 1 55890 724 2
[3] Keith Diefendorff and Pradeep K. Dubey, "How Multimedia Workloads Will Change Processor Design." Computer, September 1997
[4] Jon "Hannibal" Stokes Sound and Vision: A Technical Overview of the Emotion Engine Wednesday, February 16, 2000
[5] K. Kutaragi et al "A Micro Processor with a 128b CPU, 10 Floating-Point MACs, 4 Floating-Point Dividers, and an MPEG2 Decoder," ISSCC (Int’l Solid-State Circuits Conf.) Digest of Tech. Papers,Feb. 1999, pp. 256-257.
[6] Jon "Hannibal" Stokes “SIMD architectures”
arstechnica.com/articles/paedia/cpu/simd.ars
[7] “Graphics Synthesizer – Features and General Specifications”
arstechnica.com/cpu/1q99/playstation2-gfx.html
[8] “The Technology behind PlayStation 2”
ieee.org.uk/docs/sony.pdf
[9] Michael Karbo,“PC Architecture“
karbosguide.com/books/pcarchitecture/start.htm
[10] Gabriel Torres, “Inside Pentium 4 Architecture”
hardwaresecrets.com/article/235/1
[11] Thomas Pabst, “Intel’s new Pentium 4 Architecture”
tomshardware.co.uk/2000/11/20/intel/
[12] KuaiLeDaYuShu, “Video Card Parameters Analysis”
blog.yesky.com/Blog/joyelm/archive/2005/07/30/253803.html
[13]Howstuffworks “How PlayStation 2 Works”
entertainment.howstuffworks.com/ps21.htm
弁言
攀枝花市，四川省独一以花定名的都会，被称作阳光花城，坐落在四川东北角，金沙江和雅砻江交汇处。自1965年建市以来，都会扶植已组成范围，游览资本独具特色：怪异的天然地舆环境、独具风韵的饮食，浓烈的多数民族风尚风情文明，成为标新立异的游览品牌，成为攀枝花市对外开放的首要组成局部。
游览文明的翻译使命是使对外宣扬材料阐扬感化的首要关头， 也是一个都会对外交换水安然平静人文环境扶植的首要表现。若何让攀枝花走向天下、让天下领会攀枝花， 有用睁开招商引资、扩展对外交换和协作起到了主动感化。在这类环境下，针对今朝攀枝花市怪异游览资本的英译题目停止阐发、研讨，将极大地增进攀枝花的对外交换协作和进步都会的全体抽象。可是因为中英游览文本中的文明差别表现在其差别的审美、代价观及风尚习气等中英游览文本在供给信息方面亦有差别的偏重点。是以，在功效实际的指点下，连系中英游览文本的差别点，，游览文本的翻译应以旅客为中间，以传布中国文明为导向，终究达到游览文本的引诱方针。能够或许或许接纳响应的翻译战略：直译、增译、省译、类比等，以期增强游览文本译文的可读性，终究有用实现译文的预期功效和方针。
一、攀枝花特色地舆地貌的英译
攀枝花地处攀西裂谷中南段，属浸蚀、剥蚀中山丘陵、山原峡谷地貌，山高谷深、盆地交织散布，地质机关庞杂，丛林笼盖面积大，喀斯特地貌散布广，裂谷、温泉、溶洞、瀑布和河道屈指可数，为游览奇迹的成长供给了资本根本。对对攀枝花特色地舆地貌的英译方面，张沉香（2007）对术语的国际化， 提出应“恰当加大音译比例”，“增进国际协作和科技成长”。
音译不只能够或许或许达到简练和通明的感化，仍是保管源语文明的最好路子。尊敬术语表现的文明而接纳音译的翻译方式也是古代术语翻译的一个趋向。以攀枝花地舆地貌“喀斯特”为例，便是接纳的音译方式现已被学界多接管，可是它却曾被中国学界接纳意译的方式改译为“岩溶”。别的一个近似的例子是世纪初由中国学者肯定的“天坑”，即东方地舆学学术话语中的“特大型陷落漏斗”所描写的地舆样貌，在攀枝花也是数目浩繁，巨细不一。2005 年起，“天坑”这必然名取得了国际喀斯特学术界的分歧承认，汉语拼音 “tiankeng”起头国际通用“喀斯特”在中国和 “tiankeng”在国际学界的终究被接管，这表现了两个属于名词文明内在的保留，和音译在学术文明界的认同。
攀枝花很是着名的“格萨拉生态游览区”主景区距泸沽湖116千米，距丽江376千米，沿省道216线（稻攀路）前行可达稻城、亚丁，景区景观由天坑地漏、岩溶景观、平地草甸和彝家风情等组成。对“格萨拉生态游览区”的英译材料“Gesala Ecotourism Area as a part of the Golden Triangular Tourism Area of Daocheng， Lijiang and Panzhihua is located at the juncture of Sichuan and Yunnan Provinces.”该译文起起首容了格萨拉生态游览区的地舆地位位于稻城，丽江和攀枝花游览金三角，位于川滇两省的交代处。 “ It is not only the south gate of the Great Shangri-la of China， but also an important component of the Sunshine Ecotourism Area in west Panzhihua City.” 此句则夸大了格萨拉生态游览区的首要性，为中国大香格里拉的南大门， “the south gate”则操纵了英语中隐喻的修辞手段 “metaphor” ，很是活泼抽象。
Anothermajorareaofdebateintherealmofmacroeconomicsdealswiththebudgetdeficit.Therearenumerousquestionsthatsurroundthebudgetdeficitdebate.Forinstance,shouldthebudgetbebalanced?Whatistheburdenofthenationaldebt?Whatarethelong-termeffectsofanunbalancedbudget?Theanswerstothesequestionsdivideeconomists.
ThisSparkNotecoverstwomajoreconomicpolicydebatesthatrelatedirectlytomoneyandtotheeconomy.Thesedebatesareimportantsincetheyoftendivideeconomists.Similarly,byunderstandingthesedebates,itispossibletoviewthecomplexityofmacroeconomicpolicyintherealworld.Whilemacroeconomictheoryseemsratherblackandwhite,theapplicationofthistheorytotherealworldisnowherenearthissimple.
TheFedandthegovernmentusedifferenttoolstosteertheeconomy.Recallthatmonetarypolicy,thetoolboxoftheFed,includesperformingopenmarketoperations,andchangingboththereserverequirementandthefederalfundsinterestrate.Recallalsothatfiscalpolicy,thetoolboxofthegovernment,includeschangingbothtaxesandgovernmentspending.
Allofthesetoolscanbecontrolledactively.Thatis,iftheFedorthegovernmentdecidetouseexpansionarypolicy,theycansimplyselectatoolfromthepolicytoolboxanduseit.Inthisway,activepolicyisdefinedasactionsbytheFedorbythegovernmentthataredoneinresponsetoeconomicconditions.Thatis,theFedorthegovernmentchoosetorespondtosomethingintheeconomybyundertakingaspecificpolicy.Thisisalsocalleddiscretionarypolicy.
Activepolicy,whilesimple,isopentoanumberofdifficulties.BecauseitreliesontheactionsandexperiencesofthepolicymakersintheFedandinthegovernment,theweaknessesorprejudicesofthesepolicymakerscanbetranslatedintoofficialeconomicpolicy.Forinstance,duringelectionyears,acentralbankermaypursuepolicythatenablestheeconomytogrowintheshortrun,regardlessofthelong-termeffects,inordertohelpacandidate.Ontheotherhand,thecentralbankermaycontracttheeconomytohurtacandidate.Similarly,itwouldbepossibleforthepolicymakerstopursuepoliciesthatachievetheirselfishendsratherthanthosethatarebestfortheeconomyatlarge.Finally,withactivepolicy,policymakerscansayonethinganddoanother.Theremaybebenefitstomakingthepublicbelievethatsomethingdifferentisoccurringintheeconomyratherthanwhatactuallyisoccurring.Forinstance,iftheFedwantstoincreaseinvestment,itcouldusedeceptionbyclaimingthatitraisedinterestrateswhilenotactuallydoingso.Inthisscenario,privateinvestorswouldsavemorebutinvestmentwouldremainattheoldlevelorevenincrease.Thus,itisreasonabletoclaimthatactivepolicyleavesmonetarypolicyandfiscalpolicyopentonotonlyaccidentalhumanerrorbutalsotomaliciousandself-servingacts.
二、依纲扣本，中考接纳三阶段四板块轮回转动的温习情势
按照《英语课程规范》和《英语中考指南》，三阶段指温习时候分为三个阶段，四板块指单元梳理板块、专项练习板块、综合练习板块和听、说、读、写才能练习板块，它们相互融会相互增进，使常识和才能水平不时轮回晋升。第一阶段单元梳理板块首要是梳理初中阶段所学的全数的说话常识。牛津英语讲义按照话题———布局———功效———情形———使命体系以单元情势编排，以是梳理说话常识以单元作板块来全体温习较公道。按讲义挨次以话题和使命为主线，和他们和功效、语法名方针干系提早分门别类的梳理，归结四会单词、重点词组、重点句型、语法和讲义对话等常识，汇编成讲义发给先生，使先生头脑中有清楚常识体系收集图。第二阶段专项练习温习是对针对名词、冠词、非谓语动词、并列句和复合句等作专项的练习。此阶段的使命首要经由进程语法线来稳固、深入讲义英语常识。第三阶段综合练习板块使命首要是经由进程专项题型和摹拟测试来周全培育先生综合招考才能水平。综合练习也可从英语总温习一起头时就要有打算支配，如一个礼拜做一套完全的综合试卷或专项题，以便培育全体温习英语的认识。听、说、读、写才能练习板块一直贯串在全部三个阶段里，要频频有条理地练习，每周要牢固时候，保障练习次数和品德，同时做好点拨和评析，教授各类方式和技能，使常识和才能组成互补，进步温习效力。
三、分层指点，在统一练习同时正视分层的功课安排
英语总温习阶段先生的英语水平已整齐不齐，按照常识把握水平和进修品德能够或许或许分红优异生，中等生和落后生，此中落后生的英语水平还不如七年级先生的英语水平。那末教员既不能抛却某些先生，也不能一个条理请求一切的先生。只要按照先生个别的学情份层指点和请求才为下策。起首英语说话常识点分层请求可从讲义本身动身，对每一个单元，细到梳理常识点，在此根本上停止“淘金”勾当，将常识点梳理成金字塔形，将差别的常识点对应于差别条理的先生，分条理分化常识点，对响应条理的先生提出响应的须要。其次要引进协作机制来分条理优化，按照每位先生的才能，制定规范分，停止嘉奖，使他们个个有敌手，大家有温习方针，大家有危急感，把进修主动性最大限制地变更起来。最初对落后生出格要多停止感情关切，按照先生差别环境赞助他们找出名自的软弱关头，接纳人盯人方式，一方面停止面临面教导；别的一方面当真面批他们的练习和试卷，阐发他们的毛病缘由，赞助他们写出精确谜底。如许每一个条理的先生都响应达到应有的温习水平，进步了温习效力。
【1】ZeigerM.Essentialsofwritingbiomedicalresearchpapers.NewYork：McGraw-Hill，Inc，1991.257-283
【2】LawrenceJ.Appel，etc.ComparativeEffectivenessofWeight-LossInterventionsinClinicalPractice[J].NewEnglandJournalofMedicine， 2011，365：1959-1968
【3】陈攻，李晶.医护职员习得医学英语专业辞汇方式浅析[J].照顾护士学杂志，2008，23（1）：16-19
【4】何筑丽，国林祥.医学英语写作与翻译[M].北京：高档教导出书社，2000
【5】任快意.医学论文英语写作的文体特色[J].适用儿科临床杂志，2009，24（17）：1383-1384
参考文献：
[1]Blackmore，Susan.TheMemeMachin[M].NewYork：OxfordUniversityPress，1999.
[2]Dawkins，Richard.TheSelfishGene[M].NewYork：OxfordUniversityPress，1976.
[3]陈琳霞.模因论与大学英语写作讲授[J].外语学刊，2008（1）：88—91.
[4]何天然.说话中的模因[J].说话迷信，2005（6）：54—64.
[5]张颖、模因论对大学英语传闻讲授的启迪[J].西安本国语大学学报，2009（3）：111—113.
参考文献：
［1］Knoy，Ted，AnEditingWorkbookforChineseTechnicalWriters［M］.Hsinchu，Taiwan：CWebTechnology，2000.
［2］琼·平卡姆（美）.中式英语之鉴［M］.外语讲授与研讨出书社，1998.
2.操纵英语歌曲进修祈使句
祈使句这天常糊口中用得最多、最白话化的句型。可操纵的这类歌曲良多，如Let’sgonow,Lookatmydoll,Let’ssinganddance,Ifyou’rehappy等等。这些歌曲的气概大多节拍明快、轻松活泼、举措感强，最适合小先生，也最受他们的接待。教员在教唱的进程中，辅之响应的举措和丰硕的心情，讲堂上的氛围马上活泼起来。学唱这类歌曲的方式良多，如独唱、独唱、分小组唱、男女对唱等，情势多样。
3.操纵英语歌曲赞助平常交换
这类歌曲良多，笼盖面最广，经常触及到五个“W”—who/what/where/when/why和一个“h”---how，如What’syourname?Howoldareyou?WhereisMickeyMouse?等。这类歌曲与讲义内容接洽很紧密亲密，常常便是一节课的首要内容。可是，这些歌曲的歌词也绝对比拟庞杂，比拟适合语音、腔调和语感较好的中、高年级先生。
4．操纵英语歌曲进修抒发思惟
在歌曲讲授中，教员丰硕的心情、活泼的说话和多彩的道具，组成了一场场超卓的歌舞剧。教员是超卓的编导，而心爱的先生就成了超卓的演员。
中图分类号：H315 文献标识码：A
文章的主体是科技论文的焦点局部，是主题思惟的睁开和阐述。作者可按照须要在文章中加小标题，将主体内容分为几个局部停止阐述。科技论文的英文写作凡是把每段的主体句（Topic Sentence）放在段落的第一句，全段环绕主体句阐述，界说与论述是科技论文写作中又一种经常操纵的写作方式。
一、界说（Definition）
（一）Introduction
When making a hypothesis（假说）or other statement， scientists must make sure that they will beunderstood by other researchers. Misunderstandings occur when there are different concepts of what is being discussed.
A definition answers the question， “What is it?” Sometimes a definition is necessary because a word or concept has more than one meaning. For example， whether carbon is a metal or nonmetal depends on how you define carbon. At other times， a definition is required because a term is being used in a special way. For example， physicists use the terms work and energy in ways that are more specific than their common meanings. A definition should be complete enough to include all the items in the category yet narrow enough to eliminate items that do not belong. The Greek philosopher Plato once defined man as a two-legged creature that has no feathers. The problem with Plato's definition was that it did not distinguish a man from other two-legged creatures without feathers. Communication between researchers is dependent on precise definitions of substances， concepts， processes， and ideas.
Greek philosopher Plato 希腊哲学家帕拉图
（二）Sentence patterns
Sentence pattern 1:
An astronomer is a scientist whostudies the universe.
A barometeris an instrumentthat measures air pressure.
Conductionis a process by which heat is transferred.
A laboratoryis a place whereexperiments are performed.
Physicsis the study ofmatter and energy.
A volt is a unitfor measuring electrical pressure.
Sentence pattern 2:
Mercuryisa liquidmetal.
Asbestosis a fire-resistantmineral.
A dinosaurisa prehistoric reptile.
A monkeyis a small， long -tailedprimate.
（三）Application Examples
be 是
mean 意思是，象征着，意指
denote 表现，指
imply 意思是，象征着
be named 定名为，被称为
Examples：
1. Printers are output devices.
打印机是输入装备。
2. Multiprogramming means the existence of many programs in different parts of main memory at the same time.
多道法式象征着在主存储器的差别局部同时存在着多个法式。
3. Data denotes a collection of facts that can serve as operands to computer program.
数据是指可作为计较机法式操纵工具的调集。
4. A “system” implies a good mixture of integrated parts working together to form useful whole.
“体系”意指将协同使命各局部恰当地综合而成的一个有用的全体。
5. The first digital computer built in 1946 at the University of Pennsylvania was named ENIAC.
第一台计较机是1946年在宾夕法尼亚大学制作的，定名为ENIAC。
二、论述（Describing）
（一）Introduction
A description serves to introduce a scientist's view of the world. It may describe conditions， results of an experiment， chemical changes， physical movements， or what is seen through a telescope or microscope. A description may also tell the characteristics or distinctive features of an object―how it look， sounds， tastes， smells， works， or is produced.
The nature of something can be explained by describing it. For example， the concept of an atom is difficult to grasp from a definition alone， but a description of its appearance， detailing its structure and function， makes it easier to visualize.
（二）Sentence patterns
The Nile River is 4，145 miles long.
Mount Everest is 8，848 meters high.
The Dead Sea is 11 miles wide.
The Nile River has a length 4，145 miles.
The Sun has a surface temperature of 11，000°F.
The Grand Canyon has a depth of 5，500 feet.
The color of iodine is purplish black.
The texture of sand is rough and granular.
The orbits of planets are elliptical.
Pluto is relatively small.
Blue stars are extremely hot.
Copper salts are slightly blue in aqueous solutions.
（三）Application Examples
be是
be considered （to be） 被以为是，被看做
be known as 被称为是，被以为是，即
be referred to as 称为，叫做
be thought of as 被以为是
be regarded as 被以为是
Examples:
1.This ability to allow interrupts to interrupt previous interrupts service routines safely are referred to as nested interrupts.
许可某些间断去间断先前的间断办事法式，并能精确运转的才能称为嵌套间断。
2.One of the most important characteristics of a computer is its capability of storing information in its memory long enough to process it.
计较机最首要的特色之一便是具备如许一种才能，即在它的存储器中保管信息时候长到足以对这些信息停止处置。
3.In the majority of applications the computer's capability to store and access large amounts of information plays the dominant part and is considered to be its primary characteristic.
在大局部的操纵中，计较机能够或许或许存储和拜候大批的信息这一特色，起了关头的感化，并被当作是计较机的首要特色。
二、商务英语会话中的语用范围
语用范围在商务相同范畴必不可少，如奥斯汀的说话行动实际、格莱斯的协作准绳等。这些实际在商务英语会话中的感化不容轻忽，对实际的懂得和操纵在相称大的水平上间接决议着相同的成败与否。说话行动实际始于东方，并由约翰·兰肖·奥斯汀提出，该实际使得语用学研讨进入新范畴。奥斯汀的说话行动实际首要包含两个方面：起首，报告说话单元及其意动功效；其次，谈及了说话单元的主客体视角所致使的行动。比方，傍边国贩子和中亚国度停止商业构和时，中国客户心情若是表现得生硬或收回有弦外之音的言辞，中亚商家将没法懂得，因为在中亚国度里，脸部心情所抒收回来的意思占有着听话人的首要判定，而这一判定若是失利将间接致使弦外之音的没法抒发，在这一会话进程中就会呈现两边难以懂得的题目。
1.语块与说话抒发
语块有助于进步说话抒发的流畅性和精确性。语块是说话操纵中组成的习气性说话构块，操纵者无需晓得其内部布局便能够或许或许流畅地抒发，在寒暄时能够或许或许全体提取操纵。Nattinger&DeCarrico指出，人们操纵说话的流畅度不取决于进修者大脑中存储了几多天生语法法则，而在于存储了几多语块。别的，语块多数是按照必然的语法法则天生的，寒暄时进修者不需特地注重语法布局。在商务勾当寒暄进程中，进修者能够或许或许间接提取大脑中贮存的适合特定语境的语块，矫捷操纵语块，更顺遂地实现商务寒暄方针。
2.语块与语用才能
语块能够或许或许进步寒暄的得体性。因为每一个语块都有语勤奋效，表现统一功效的语块以语义场(se－manticfield)的情势存在于大脑中，提取操纵时按照寒暄语境、寒暄工具等详细环境，拔取最适合的语块。是以，语块讲授能够或许或许使先生取得必然寒暄战略的才能，以保障寒暄的顺遂实现。正如Krashen(1978)指出的，进修者出于寒暄压力的影响，必须记一些公式化的套语。为了体例出缔造性的说话，他们必须记着很多现成的行动话语以填补第二说话法则的缺乏。经由进程把握大批的语块，增添进修者说话的储蓄，使说话交换更顺遂。商务英语寒暄时，先生能够或许或许按照详细的商务语境、寒暄工具、寒暄时的主题等，拔取适合的语块来进步寒暄的得体性。
3.语块与辞汇的影象
语块进修有助于进步先生的辞汇影象与习得。语块有益于辞汇的进修。起首，因为语块是较大的辞汇构块，乃至是完全的句子，它们就像不可分的“组块”贮存在大脑词库中，轻易主动检索。别的，语块作为全体在说话中呈现的频次较高，可确保语块能天然地、不时地获得轮回。语块高频呈现和语境凭借的特色轻易使进修者对进修内容发生“情势-语境-功效”的接洽，从而以全体情势习得与贮存。语块意思是置于特定的语境，比离开语境零丁背辞汇更轻易记着，并且不轻易忘记。
二、基于语块的商务英语讲授方式
商务英语寒暄勾当的顺遂停止很大水平上依靠于商务英语中的语块景象。成立以语块为纽带的讲授法是进步进修者商务英语才能的一个实在可行的方式。是以，可接纳以下方式实行“语块”讲授法。
1.辨认语块
讲授勾当以语块为中间。教员赞助先生领会语块的特色、感化和范例，指点先生辨认和区分语块，激活先生的语块认识，在先生潜认识中把语块作为说话进修的最小单元。讲授中教员应明白向先生指出差别商务文体语篇中高频呈现的语块，除请求先生影象并会操纵讲义中呈现的语块外，还能够或许或许连系语块中的焦点辞汇供给一些惯例搭配，供先生频频练习，培育先生对语块的区分才能和敏理性。同时，教员可操纵类比、归结、同义、反义、形近等方式让先生把新学到的语块和之前学的辞汇或语块成立起接洽，增强先生对辞汇进修的体系性，便于辞汇的影象、贮存和提取，以进步先生的商务英语才能。
2.归结语块
领会了语块的特色和功效后，教员可指点先生按照差别的语块分类规范，将商务勾傍边差别语境中的语块操纵环境停止归结分类。如商务写作课程中的商务信函写作，教员可指点先生按照差别信函的品种(如询盘和报盘)归结出此中每一个关头的语块操纵环境。别的，教员可操纵权势巨子隧道的商务英语信函例文指点先生停止商务英语信函的写作，强化先生辨认商务英语信函中的语块认识，增强基于语块的商务英语信函写作。
